By: Olivia Glunz
Alexander the Great, the 4th-century B.C. Macedonian king and world conqueror, captivated the medieval imagination. In lands as diverse as England, Egypt, and Iran, tales of Alexander’s rise to power, far-ranging travels, and epic conquests attained immense popularity. Hearing such gripping accounts of this historical-turned-legendary figure, many listeners naturally began to wonder: what was the secret to Alexander’s success?
An 8th-century A.D. text purports to give an answer. Secretum Secretorum—literally, the “Secret of Secrets,” also known in Arabic as Sirr al-Asrar—is a treatise on rulership allegedly written for Alexander by Aristotle. While Aristotle did indeed tutor Alexander when the conqueror was a young man, Secretum Secretorum was almost certainly composed in the Middle Ages; hence, it is attributed to Pseudo-Aristotle rather than Aristotle himself. The Secretum Secretorum circulated widely in the medieval world: the earliest known version of the text, written in Arabic, attained significant popularity in the Muslim world. Eventually, the text reached Spain, where, in the 13th century, it was translated into Latin. In turn, the Latin text was transmitted throughout Europe and was translated into French, English, Russian, and numerous other vernacular tongues. Secretum Secretorum was immensely influential; for instance, it was read by Christian dissident John Wycliffe, and it likely informed Chaucer’s descriptions of the human body in The Canterbury Tales.
In Secretum Secretorum, Pseudo-Aristotle provides Alexander with insights into many different topics related to rulership. The treatise is divided into ten discourses, whose subjects range from wartime strategy to astrology and magic. While these topics are certainly far-ranging, they are in fact unified by a common theme: justice. Pseudo-Aristotle defines justice as “equal division, removal of oppression, correctness of weights and equality of measures.” Justice, in other words, entails understanding the proper order of the universe and upholding this order through equality and right judgment.
Indeed, justice itself actually defines the order of the universe. In Pseudo-Aristotle’s conception, the cosmic order forms a large, harmonious circle that begins and ends with justice: “justice is the… supporter of the world” (226); the world, in turn, allows for the existence of the state, the state is the foundation of the law, the law guides kings, kings employ armies, armies are fueled by wealth, wealth is supplied by the people, and “the people are subject to justice” (227). Not only, then, does justice provide the foundation of the entire world, but every part of the world ultimately points back to justice. Pseudo-Aristotle’s circular schema also reveals that the universe is a closed system. Circumscribed by the ring of justice, the various constituents of the cosmos form a complete, unified whole. Therefore, all things, no matter how different they appear, operate in accordance with a coherent, all-encompassing universal law. The cosmos, in other words, follows a sort of “secret code.” By teaching Alexander to crack this code, Pseudo-Aristotle gives him the secret to becoming a great king.
Thus, the virtuous ruler, as envisioned by the Secretum Secretorum, must be knowledgeable about many topics so that he can discern the rules of the cosmos and use them to his advantage. In many instances, the ruler achieves most success by seeking to respect and uphold the innate order of the universe. For example, Pseudo-Aristotle explains that kings occupy an exalted place within the cosmic order. Thus, in accordance with their natural role, rulers ought to behave honorably, remain aloof from commoners, and reflect God’s justice and mercy to subjects.
In other cases, however, knowledge of the rules of the universe helps one avoid potentially harmful outcomes. Pseudo-Aristotle explains that a person’s physiognomy reveals much about her nature—soft-haired individuals, for instance, are timid, while those with long nostrils are brave. A man conversant with these universal physiognomic laws can analyze his own appearance, discover which vices he is naturally most susceptible to, and work to mitigate those undesirable traits. Ultimately, success for a king—and any human being—requires first discerning the order of the universe and then using this knowledge to foster potential benefits and attenuate threats. If Pseudo-Aristotle’s treatise really offers both the key to cracking the cosmic code and sound advice for navigating its implications, then the Secretum Secretorum would indeed be deserving of its title.
Unfortunately, it seems unlikely that the Secretum Secretorum has delivered on its promise. After all, as discussed above, the Secretum Secretorum was wildly popular across locales and centuries, and yet, to the best of our knowledge, the code of the universe remains unsolved. However, lest we unfairly underestimate Pseudo-Aristotle, we should acknowledge the possibility that the Secretum Secretorum really does communicate the key to the universe, albeit so secretly that no one has managed to discern it.
Pseudo-Aristotle. Secretum Secretorum. Trans. Roger Bacon. Ed. A.S. Fulton.
"Secreta Secretorum." The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Ed. Birch, Dinah. : Oxford University Press, , 2009. Oxford Reference. Date Accessed 29 Mar. 2024 <https://www-oxfordreference-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780192806871.001.0001/acref-9780192806871-e-6815>.
John, North. "Secreta Secretorum." The Oxford Companion to Chaucer. : Oxford University Press, , 2005. Oxford Reference. Date Accessed 29 Mar. 2024 <https://www-oxfordreference-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780198117650.001.0001/acref-9780198117650-e-1568>.
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